We consider two matrices of $M _ { 2 } ( \mathbf { Z } )$ that are $\mathbf { C }$-equivalent. Are they always $\mathbf { Z }$-equivalent?

Let $r$ and $m$ be strictly positive integers with $r \leq m$. We consider a subspace $V$ of the $\mathbf { C }$-vector space $M _ { m } ( \mathbf { C } )$. Throughout the following, we make the following hypothesis: every element of $V$ is a matrix of rank at most $r$. Show that we can assume that $V$ contains the block matrix: $$A = \left( \begin{array} { c c } I _ { r } & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \end{array} \right)$$

a) Show that $N(ZZ') = N(Z)N(Z')$ for all $Z, Z' \in \mathbb{H}$. b) Show that $S$ is a subgroup of $\mathbb{H}^\times$ and that $\frac{1}{\sqrt{N(Z)}}Z \in S$ for all $Z \in \mathbb{H}^\times$.

Show that $\alpha$ is a group morphism and describe its kernel, where $$\begin{aligned} \alpha : S \times S & \longrightarrow \mathrm{GL}(\mathbb{H}) \\ (u, v) & \longmapsto (Z \mapsto uZv^{-1}) \end{aligned}$$

Show that $\alpha$ is continuous and that the image of $\alpha$ is contained in $\mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{H})$. One may begin by showing that $\alpha(u,v) \in \mathrm{O}(\mathbb{H})$ for $(u,v) \in S \times S$.

Let $\theta \in \mathbb{R}$ and $v \in \mathbb{H}^{\mathrm{im}} \cap S$, and let $u = (\cos\theta)E + (\sin\theta)v$. a) Show that $u \in S$ and that $u^{-1} = (\cos\theta)E - (\sin\theta)v$. b) Let $w \in \mathbb{H}^{\mathrm{im}} \cap S$ be a vector orthogonal to $v$. Describe the matrix of $C_u$ in the direct orthonormal basis $(v, w, vw)$ of $\mathbb{H}^{\mathrm{im}}$.

Show that the map $u \mapsto C_u$ induces a surjective group morphism $S \rightarrow \mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{H}^{\mathrm{im}})$ and describe its kernel.

a) Deduce that $\alpha(S \times S) = \mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{H})$. b) Show that $N := \alpha(S \times \{E\})$ is a subgroup of $\mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{H})$, then that $gng^{-1} \in N$ for all $n \in N$ and $g \in \mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{H})$ and that $\{\pm\mathrm{id}\} \subsetneq N \subsetneq \mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{H})$.

Show that $\mathrm{Aut}(\mathbb{H})$ is a subgroup of $\mathrm{GL}(\mathbb{H})$, containing $\alpha(u,u)$ for all $u \in S$.

Show that $(f(I), f(J), f(K))$ is a direct orthonormal basis of $\mathbb{H}^{\mathrm{im}}$ for all $f \in \mathrm{Aut}(\mathbb{H})$.

a) Show that the restriction map to $\mathbb{H}^{\mathrm{im}}$ induces a group isomorphism $$\mathrm{Aut}(\mathbb{H}) \simeq \mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{H}^{\mathrm{im}}).$$ b) Show that $$\mathrm{Aut}(\mathbb{H}) = \{\alpha(u,u) \mid u \in S\}.$$

Determine the characteristic polynomial of the double star with $d _ { 1 } + d _ { 2 } + 2$ vertices, consisting respectively of two disjoint stars with $d _ { 1 }$ and $d _ { 2 }$ branches, to which an additional edge has been added connecting the two centers of the two stars. What is the rank of the adjacency matrix of this double star?

Let $n$ be a non-zero natural integer. For any permutation $\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}$, we recall that there exists, up to order, a unique decomposition $\sigma = c_{1} c_{2} \cdots c_{\omega(\sigma)}$, where $\omega(\sigma) \in \mathbb{N}^{*}$ where $c_{1}, \ldots, c_{\omega(\sigma)}$ are cycles with disjoint supports of respective lengths $\ell_{1} \leqslant \ell_{2} \leqslant \cdots \leqslant \ell_{\omega(\sigma)}$ and $\ell_{1} + \ell_{2} + \cdots + \ell_{\omega(\sigma)} = n$. We consider, on the probability space $(\mathfrak{S}_{n}, \mathscr{P}(\mathfrak{S}_{n}))$ equipped with the uniform probability, the random variable $X_{n}$ defined by $X_{n}(\sigma) = \omega(\sigma)$.
Prove that $\mathbb{E}\left[X_{n}\right] \underset{n \rightarrow +\infty}{=} \ln(n) + \gamma + O\left(\frac{1}{n}\right)$.

Let $n$ be a non-zero natural integer. For any permutation $\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}$, we recall that there exists, up to order, a unique decomposition $\sigma = c_{1} c_{2} \cdots c_{\omega(\sigma)}$, where $\omega(\sigma) \in \mathbb{N}^{*}$ where $c_{1}, \ldots, c_{\omega(\sigma)}$ are cycles with disjoint supports of respective lengths $\ell_{1} \leqslant \ell_{2} \leqslant \cdots \leqslant \ell_{\omega(\sigma)}$ and $\ell_{1} + \ell_{2} + \cdots + \ell_{\omega(\sigma)} = n$. For an integer $k$ at most $n$, we denote by $s(n,k)$ the number of permutations of $\mathfrak{S}_{n}$ such that $\omega(\sigma) = k$.
Show that $$\frac{1}{n!} \sum_{k=1}^{n} k(k-1) s(n,k) = \sum_{i=1}^{n} \sum_{j=1}^{n} \frac{1}{ij} - \sum_{i=1}^{n} \frac{1}{i^{2}}.$$

Let $n$ be a non-zero natural integer. For any permutation $\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}$, we recall that there exists, up to order, a unique decomposition $\sigma = c_{1} c_{2} \cdots c_{\omega(\sigma)}$, where $\omega(\sigma) \in \mathbb{N}^{*}$ where $c_{1}, \ldots, c_{\omega(\sigma)}$ are cycles with disjoint supports of respective lengths $\ell_{1} \leqslant \ell_{2} \leqslant \cdots \leqslant \ell_{\omega(\sigma)}$ and $\ell_{1} + \ell_{2} + \cdots + \ell_{\omega(\sigma)} = n$. For an integer $k$ at most $n$, we denote by $s(n,k)$ the number of permutations of $\mathfrak{S}_{n}$ such that $\omega(\sigma) = k$. We consider, on the probability space $(\mathfrak{S}_{n}, \mathscr{P}(\mathfrak{S}_{n}))$ equipped with the uniform probability, the random variable $X_{n}$ defined by $X_{n}(\sigma) = \omega(\sigma)$.
Deduce that $$\frac{1}{n!} \sum_{k=1}^{n} k^{2} s(n,k) = \mathbb{E}\left[X_{n}\right] + \left(\sum_{i=1}^{n} \sum_{j=1}^{n} \frac{1}{ij} - \sum_{i=1}^{n} \frac{1}{i^{2}}\right).$$

Let $n$ be a non-zero natural integer. For any permutation $\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}$, we recall that there exists, up to order, a unique decomposition $\sigma = c_{1} c_{2} \cdots c_{\omega(\sigma)}$, where $\omega(\sigma) \in \mathbb{N}^{*}$ where $c_{1}, \ldots, c_{\omega(\sigma)}$ are cycles with disjoint supports of respective lengths $\ell_{1} \leqslant \ell_{2} \leqslant \cdots \leqslant \ell_{\omega(\sigma)}$ and $\ell_{1} + \ell_{2} + \cdots + \ell_{\omega(\sigma)} = n$.
Show that $$\frac{1}{n!} \sum_{\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}} \omega(\sigma)^{2} \underset{n \rightarrow +\infty}{=} (2\gamma+1)\ln(n) + c + \ln(n)^{2} + O\left(\frac{\ln(n)}{n}\right)$$ for a real number $c$ to be specified.

Let $n$ be a non-zero natural integer. For any permutation $\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}$, we recall that there exists, up to order, a unique decomposition $\sigma = c_{1} c_{2} \cdots c_{\omega(\sigma)}$, where $\omega(\sigma) \in \mathbb{N}^{*}$ where $c_{1}, \ldots, c_{\omega(\sigma)}$ are cycles with disjoint supports of respective lengths $\ell_{1} \leqslant \ell_{2} \leqslant \cdots \leqslant \ell_{\omega(\sigma)}$ and $\ell_{1} + \ell_{2} + \cdots + \ell_{\omega(\sigma)} = n$.
Show that $$\frac{1}{n!} \sum_{\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}} (\omega(\sigma) - \ln(n))^{2} \underset{n \rightarrow +\infty}{=} \ln(n) + c + O\left(\frac{\ln(n)}{n}\right)$$

Let $n$ be a non-zero natural integer. For any permutation $\sigma \in \mathfrak{S}_{n}$, we recall that there exists, up to order, a unique decomposition $\sigma = c_{1} c_{2} \cdots c_{\omega(\sigma)}$, where $\omega(\sigma) \in \mathbb{N}^{*}$ where $c_{1}, \ldots, c_{\omega(\sigma)}$ are cycles with disjoint supports of respective lengths $\ell_{1} \leqslant \ell_{2} \leqslant \cdots \leqslant \ell_{\omega(\sigma)}$ and $\ell_{1} + \ell_{2} + \cdots + \ell_{\omega(\sigma)} = n$. We consider, on the probability space $(\mathfrak{S}_{n}, \mathscr{P}(\mathfrak{S}_{n}))$ equipped with the uniform probability, the random variable $X_{n}$ defined by $X_{n}(\sigma) = \omega(\sigma)$.
Justify that there exists a positive real number $C > 0$ such that, for any real $\varepsilon > 0$ and any integer $n \geqslant 1$, we have $$\mathbb{P}\left(\left|X_{n} - \ln(n)\right| > \varepsilon \ln(n)\right) \leqslant \frac{C}{\varepsilon^{2} \ln(n)}$$

Let $W'$ be the subspace of $V$ defined by $$W' = \{P(u)(v) + w,\, P \in \mathbb{C}[X] \text{ and } w \in W\}.$$ Verify that $W'$ contains $W$ and $v$ and that it is stable by $u$.

We denote $G_v = \varphi(u^r(v))$. Prove that there exists an element $F_v$ of $\mathcal{D}$ such that $$G_v = \xi^r(F_v).$$

Let $P$ be a polynomial and let $w$ be an element of $W$. Prove that if $P(u)(v) = w$, then $P(\xi)(F_v) = \varphi(w)$.

Let $x$ be an element of $W'$. Let $P$ be a polynomial and let $w$ be an element of $W$ such that $x = P(u)(v) + w$. Prove that the element $\varphi'(x) = P(\xi)(F_v) + \varphi(w)$ depends only on $x$ and not on the choice of $P$ and $w$. Verify then that the application $\varphi'$ thus defined is an extension of $\varphi$ to $W'$ compatible with $u$ (it is not asked to verify that $\varphi'$ is linear, which we will admit).

Prove that $\varphi$ admits an extension $\psi$ to $V$ compatible with $u$.

We choose a vector $v_0$ such that $u^{n-1}(v_0)$ is nonzero. Verify that the family $(v_0, u(v_0), \ldots, u^{n-1}(v_0))$ is free and that the subspace $W$ it spans contains $v_0$ and is stable by $u$. Write the matrix of the induced endomorphism $u_W$ in this basis.

Prove that there exists an injective linear application $\varphi : W \rightarrow \mathcal{D}$ such that $\xi \circ \varphi = \varphi \circ u_W$. According to Part III, this linear application $\varphi$ admits an extension $\psi : V \rightarrow \mathcal{D}$ compatible with $u$.