Let $A \in S _ { n } ^ { + + } ( \mathbf { R } )$ and $M \in S _ { n } ( \mathbf { R } )$. Let the application $f _ { A }$ defined on $\mathbf { R }$ by
$$f _ { A } ( t ) = \operatorname { det } ( A + t M )$$
Show that there exists $\varepsilon _ { 0 } > 0$ such that, for all $t \in ] - \varepsilon _ { 0 } , \varepsilon _ { 0 } [ , A + t M \in S _ { n } ^ { + + } ( \mathbf { R } )$.

We consider the Euclidean space $E = \mathscr{M}_{N,1}(\mathbf{R})$ equipped with the inner product $\langle X, Y \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^{N} X[i] Y[i] \pi[i]$, the endomorphism $u : X \mapsto (I_N - K)X$, and for $X \in E$, the functions $\psi_X : t \mapsto H_t X$ and $\varphi_X : t \mapsto \|H_t X\|^2$. Deduce that $\varphi_X$ is differentiable and express $\varphi_X'(t)$ in terms of $q_u$.

We fix $x \in \mathcal{C}$ such that $\|Ax\| = 1$. Let $B \in \mathrm{SO}(\mathbb{R}^2)$ be a matrix such that $x = B\binom{1}{0}$. a) Show that for all $r \in ]0,1[$ there exists $x_r \in \mathcal{C}$ such that $$\left\| AB\begin{pmatrix} r & 0 \\ 0 & \frac{1}{r} \end{pmatrix} x_r \right\| > 1$$ b) Show that if $x_r = \binom{y_r}{z_r}$, then $z_r^2 > \dfrac{r^2}{1+r^2}$.

Let $(f^0, g^0) \in \mathbb{R}^{I \times J}$. For all $k \geq 0$, we consider $$g^{k+1} = g_*(f^k) \text{ and } f^{k+1} = f_*(g^{k+1})$$ Assume that there exist $f^\infty = (f_i^\infty)_{i \in I}$ and $g^\infty = (g_j^\infty)_{j \in J}$ such that $|f_i^k - f_i^\infty| \rightarrow 0$ and $|g_j^k - g_j^\infty| \rightarrow 0$ for all $i \in I$ and $j \in J$. We denote $G_* = \sup\{G(f,g) \mid (f,g) \in \mathbb{R}^I \times \mathbb{R}^J\}$.
(a) Show that $G(f^\infty, g^\infty) = G_*$.
(b) Show that $G(f(\epsilon), g(\epsilon)) = G_*$.
(c) Show that there exists a constant $a \in \mathbb{R}$ such that $f(\epsilon)_i = f_i^\infty + a$ and $g(\epsilon)_j = g_j^\infty - a$ for all $(i,j) \in I \times J$.
(d) Deduce that $q(f^k, g^k) \rightarrow q(\epsilon)$.

Let $T$ be a non-zero shift-invariant endomorphism of $\mathbb{K}[X]$, and let $n(T)$ be the natural number such that $\deg(Tp) = \max\{-1, \deg(p) - n(T)\}$ for every $p \in \mathbb{K}[X]$.
Deduce $\ker(T)$ in terms of $n(T)$.

In this part we consider a map $\varphi$ from $\mathbf { R } ^ { n }$ to $\mathbf { R } ^ { n }$ of class $\mathcal { C } ^ { 1 }$ such that $\varphi ( 0 ) = 0$, and denoting $a = d \varphi ( 0 )$, such that all eigenvalues of $a$ have strictly negative real part. Let $b(x,y) = \int_0^{+\infty} \langle e^{ta}(x) \mid e^{ta}(y) \rangle\, dt$ and $q(x) = b(x,x)$. Let $x_0 \in \mathbf{R}^n$ and $f_{x_0}$ the solution of $y' = \varphi(y),\ y(0) = x_0$. For any function $y$ defined on $\mathbf{R}_+$, define: $$\varepsilon ( y ) : \mathbf { R } _ { + } \rightarrow \mathbf { R } ^ { n }, \quad t \mapsto \varphi ( y ( t ) ) - a ( y ( t ) )$$
Verify the equality $$\forall t \in \mathbf { R } _ { + } , \quad q \left( f _ { x _ { 0 } } \right) ^ { \prime } ( t ) = - \left\| f _ { x _ { 0 } } ( t ) \right\| ^ { 2 } + 2 b \left( f _ { x _ { 0 } } ( t ) , \varepsilon \left( f _ { x _ { 0 } } ( t ) \right) \right)$$

Let $A \in S_n^{++}(\mathbf{R})$ and $M \in S_n(\mathbf{R})$. Let the application $f_A$ defined on $\mathbf{R}$ by $$f_A(t) = \operatorname{det}(A + tM).$$ Show that $f_A(t) \underset{t \rightarrow 0}{=} \operatorname{det}(A) + \operatorname{det}(A) \operatorname{Tr}(A^{-1}M) t + o(t)$.
Hint: You may begin by treating the case where $A = I_n$.

Let $A \in S _ { n } ^ { + + } ( \mathbf { R } )$ and $M \in S _ { n } ( \mathbf { R } )$. Let the application $f _ { A }$ defined on $\mathbf { R }$ by
$$f _ { A } ( t ) = \operatorname { det } ( A + t M )$$
Show that $f _ { A } ( t ) \underset { t \rightarrow 0 } { = } \operatorname { det } ( A ) + \operatorname { det } ( A ) \operatorname { Tr } \left( A ^ { - 1 } M \right) t + o ( t )$.
Hint: You may begin by treating the case where $A = I _ { n }$.

We consider the Euclidean space $E = \mathscr{M}_{N,1}(\mathbf{R})$ equipped with the inner product $\langle X, Y \rangle = \sum_{i=1}^{N} X[i] Y[i] \pi[i]$, the endomorphism $u : X \mapsto (I_N - K)X$ with $\ker(u) = \operatorname{Vect}(U)$, and the matrix $H_t$. We denote by $p : E \rightarrow E$ the orthogonal projection onto $\ker(u)$. Let $t \in \mathbf{R}_+$. Show that $p(H_t X) = p(X)$.

Using the above, show that there exists a basis $(e_1, e_2)$ of $\mathbb{R}^2$ such that $\|Ax\| = \|x\|_2$ for $x \in \{e_1, e_2\}$.

Let $T$ be a non-zero shift-invariant endomorphism of $\mathbb{K}[X]$.
Show that the following three assertions are equivalent:

1. [(1)] $T$ is invertible;
2. [(2)] $T1 \neq 0$;
3. [(3)] $\forall p \in \mathbb{K}[X], \deg(Tp) = \deg(p)$.

Let $T$ be a closed subset of $\mathcal{C}$, such that there exist $x, y \in T$ with $y \notin \{-x, x\}$. We assume that for all $a, b \in T$ with $b \notin \{-a, a\}$, we have that $\dfrac{b-a}{\|b-a\|_2}$ and $\dfrac{b+a}{\|b+a\|_2}$ belong to $T$. Show that $T = \mathcal{C}$.

For all $n \in \mathbb { N } ^ { * }$ and all $k \in \llbracket 0 , n \rrbracket$, we set $x _ { n , k } = - \sqrt { n } + \frac { 2 k } { \sqrt { n } }$.
Compare the real numbers $- x _ { n , k }$ and $x _ { n , n - k }$.

Prove Theorem A: Let $\|\cdot\|$ be a norm on the $\mathbb{R}$-vector space $\mathbb{R}^2$. If $$\|x+y\|^2 + \|x-y\|^2 \geq 4$$ for all $x, y \in \mathbb{R}^2$ satisfying $\|x\| = \|y\| = 1$, then $\|\cdot\|$ comes from an inner product on $\mathbb{R}^2$.

Let $f : [a, b] \longrightarrow \mathbf{R}$ be a continuous function. Prove that the restriction $g$ of the function $f$ to the interval $]a, b[$ belongs to the set $\mathscr{D}_{a,b}$.

By setting for every integer $k \geqslant 1$, $a_k = \frac{1}{k} - \frac{1}{2^{k+1}}$ and $b_k = \frac{1}{k} + \frac{1}{2^{k+1}}$, show that we can choose an integer $k_0 \geqslant 1$ such that: $$\forall k \geqslant k_0, \quad b_{k+1} < a_k.$$ Deduce that the function $f : ]0,1[ \longrightarrow \mathbf{R}$ defined by: $$f : t \longmapsto \begin{cases} k^2 \cdot 2^{k+1} \cdot (t - a_k), & \text{if there exists an integer } k \geqslant k_0 \text{ such that } t \in \left[a_k, a_k + \frac{1}{2^{k+1}}\right] \\ k^2 \cdot 2^{k+1} \cdot (b_k - t), & \text{if there exists an integer } k \geqslant k_0 \text{ such that } t \in \left[a_k + \frac{1}{2^{k+1}}, b_k\right] \\ 0, & \text{otherwise} \end{cases}$$ is a well-defined and continuous function on $]0,1[$, integrable on $]0,1[$ and that this function $f$ does not belong to the set $\mathscr{D}_{0,1}$.

Let $G$ be a graph and $G ^ { \prime }$ a copy of $G$. Justify that $\chi _ { G } = \chi _ { G ^ { \prime } }$.

Let $A \in \mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$. We denote by $\mathbb{C}[A]$ the set of elements of $\mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$ of the form $P(A)$ where $P \in \mathbb{C}[X]$ is a polynomial. We denote $$(\mathbb{C}[A])^* = \left\{B \in \mathbb{C}[A] \cap \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{C}) \mid B^{-1} \in \mathbb{C}[A]\right\}$$ For $a \in \mathbb{R}$, we define the application $$\begin{array}{ccc} Z_a : [0,1] & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ t & \longmapsto & t + iat(1-t) \end{array}$$ Show that the application $$\begin{array}{rcc} ]0,1[ \times \mathbb{R} & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ (t,a) & \longmapsto & Z_a(t) \end{array}$$ is injective.

Let $A \in \mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$. We denote by $\mathbb{C}[A]$ the set of elements of $\mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$ of the form $P(A)$ where $P \in \mathbb{C}[X]$ is a polynomial. We denote $$(\mathbb{C}[A])^* = \left\{B \in \mathbb{C}[A] \cap \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{C}) \mid B^{-1} \in \mathbb{C}[A]\right\}$$ For $a \in \mathbb{R}$, we define the application $$\begin{array}{ccc} Z_a : [0,1] & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ t & \longmapsto & t + iat(1-t) \end{array}$$ Let $M_1$ and $M_2$ be two elements of $(\mathbb{C}[A])^*$. Show that there exists $a \in \mathbb{R}$ such that $$\forall t \in [0,1], \quad M(t) = Z_a(t) M_1 + \left(1 - Z_a(t)\right) M_2 \in (\mathbb{C}[A])^*.$$

Let $A \in \mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$. We denote by $\mathbb{C}[A]$ the set of elements of $\mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$ of the form $P(A)$ where $P \in \mathbb{C}[X]$ is a polynomial. We denote $$(\mathbb{C}[A])^* = \left\{B \in \mathbb{C}[A] \cap \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{C}) \mid B^{-1} \in \mathbb{C}[A]\right\}$$ For $a \in \mathbb{R}$, we define the application $$\begin{array}{ccc} Z_a : [0,1] & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ t & \longmapsto & t + iat(1-t) \end{array}$$ Using the result of question 10b, deduce that $(\mathbb{C}[A])^*$ is path-connected.

Let $A \in \mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$. We denote by $\mathbb{C}[A]$ the set of elements of $\mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$ of the form $P(A)$ where $P \in \mathbb{C}[X]$ is a polynomial. We denote $$(\mathbb{C}[A])^* = \left\{B \in \mathbb{C}[A] \cap \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{C}) \mid B^{-1} \in \mathbb{C}[A]\right\}.$$ For $a \in \mathbb{R}$, we define the application $$\begin{array}{ccc} Z_a : [0,1] & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ t & \longmapsto & t + iat(1-t). \end{array}$$ Show that the application $$\begin{array}{clc} ]0,1[ \times \mathbb{R} & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ (t,a) & \longmapsto & Z_a(t) \end{array}$$ is injective.

Let $A \in \mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$. We denote by $\mathbb{C}[A]$ the set of elements of $\mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$ of the form $P(A)$ where $P \in \mathbb{C}[X]$ is a polynomial. We denote $$(\mathbb{C}[A])^* = \left\{B \in \mathbb{C}[A] \cap \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{C}) \mid B^{-1} \in \mathbb{C}[A]\right\}.$$ For $a \in \mathbb{R}$, we define the application $$\begin{array}{ccc} Z_a : [0,1] & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ t & \longmapsto & t + iat(1-t). \end{array}$$ Let $M_1$ and $M_2$ be two elements of $(\mathbb{C}[A])^*$. Show that there exists $a \in \mathbb{R}$ such that $$\forall t \in [0,1], \quad M(t) = Z_a(t) M_1 + \left(1 - Z_a(t)\right) M_2 \in (\mathbb{C}[A])^*.$$

Let $A \in \mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$. We denote by $\mathbb{C}[A]$ the set of elements of $\mathscr{M}_n(\mathbb{C})$ of the form $P(A)$ where $P \in \mathbb{C}[X]$ is a polynomial. We denote $$(\mathbb{C}[A])^* = \left\{B \in \mathbb{C}[A] \cap \mathrm{GL}_n(\mathbb{C}) \mid B^{-1} \in \mathbb{C}[A]\right\}.$$ For $a \in \mathbb{R}$, we define the application $$\begin{array}{ccc} Z_a : [0,1] & \longrightarrow & \mathbb{C} \\ t & \longmapsto & t + iat(1-t). \end{array}$$ Using the result of question 10b, deduce that $(\mathbb{C}[A])^*$ is path-connected.

We consider $n$ a strictly positive integer and $\mathscr{E}_{d}^{n}(\mathbb{R}) = \{ \boldsymbol{z} = (\boldsymbol{z}_{i})_{1 \leqslant i \leqslant n} \mid \boldsymbol{z}_{i} \in \mathbb{R}^{d}, 1 \leqslant i \leqslant n \}$ equipped with the norm $\|\boldsymbol{z}\| = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n} |\boldsymbol{z}_{i}|^{2}}$. For all $\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{y} \in \mathscr{E}_{d}^{n}(\mathbb{R})$, we denote $\delta(\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{y}) = \inf\{ \|\boldsymbol{y} - g \cdot \boldsymbol{x}\| \mid g \in \operatorname{Dep}(\mathbb{R}^{d}) \}$.

• [(a)] Show that for all $\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{y} \in \mathscr{E}_{d}^{n}(\mathbb{R})$ and all $g \in \operatorname{Dep}(\mathbb{R}^{d})$, we have $$\|g \cdot \boldsymbol{y} - g \cdot \boldsymbol{x}\| = \|\boldsymbol{y} - \boldsymbol{x}\|.$$
• [(b)] Deduce that $\delta(\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{y}) = \delta(\boldsymbol{y}, \boldsymbol{x})$.
• [(c)] Show that for all $(\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{y}, \boldsymbol{z}) \in \mathscr{E}_{d}^{n}(\mathbb{R})^{3}$ and $(g, g^{\prime}) \in (\operatorname{Dep}(\mathbb{R}^{d}))^{2}$, we have $$\|\boldsymbol{z} - g \cdot \boldsymbol{x}\| \leqslant \|\boldsymbol{z} - (gg^{\prime}) \cdot \boldsymbol{y}\| + \|g^{\prime} \cdot \boldsymbol{y} - \boldsymbol{x}\|$$
• [(d)] Deduce that $\delta(\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{z}) \leqslant \delta(\boldsymbol{x}, \boldsymbol{y}) + \delta(\boldsymbol{y}, \boldsymbol{z})$.

The objective of this question is part of proving that $\lambda \leqslant \mathrm { e }$. We assume by contradiction that $\lambda > \mathrm { e }$.
Verify that, for all $k$ in $\mathbb { N } , \frac { 1 } { \mathrm { e } } \leqslant \left( \frac { k + 1 } { k + 2 } \right) ^ { k + 1 }$.